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In 2006 I followed a distance learning course “The Universe Through a Small Telescope” (it was an aptly named course! 😉 ). One of the modules was writing an article on an astronomy-related subject. As I peer back to my past self of nearly 20 years ago, I still can’t understand why I chose this subject – I suppose re-reading it is a historical perspective of me!
A Historical Perspective on Astronomy
Its Social Interpretation in our History
When we look up at the night sky, we are looking into the past. Visible observations of deep sky objects, at distances measured in light years, can provide us with information about the history of the universe. It seems fitting, therefore, to examine how astronomical phenomena have been interpreted in our own history, and to see how people have related to them.
It is evident that throughout history there has been an interest in astronomical phenomena. Studies in archaeoastronomy have shown that many observations have been recorded in various historical media including moon phases on bone engravings (reference 1) and in the Lascaux Cave paintings (reference 2), Halley’s comet in the Bayeux tapestry and constellations in religious texts (e.g. reference 3). Further, several ancient observatories and physical monuments exist which pay tribute to civilisations that made astronomical observations for both spiritual and scientific purposes.
The most simple astronomical observation was that of the sun, a provider of heat and light. During a solar eclipse, when these basic provisions were seen to be under threat, the potential for several interesting beliefs was realised. The ancient Chinese believed that the sun was being eaten by a dragon. They (and in later years, the Incas who held a similar belief) tried to ward off the dragon by beating drums and shooting arrows into the sky. In India, people ritually bathed in water to help the sun defend itself from its attacker (reference 4). These practises always worked!
Even though the Mayans were thought to have been able to predict solar and lunar eclipses hundreds of years in advance (reference 4), eclipses were thought by many to have less scientific significance, for example, that they were heavenly signs foretelling the future of the Chinese Emperor (reference 5), or seen as glorious creations and signs from God – a belief still held today by Christians and traditional Muslims (references 6 and 7). Eclipses, whether for scientific or spiritual reasons, have always commanded a lot of attention.
The moon itself is an easily observable object with changing phases on successive nights. The mares, craters and mountain ranges are clearly visible with the naked eye, and have provided for many images of a “man in the moon”, a rabbit, or even a lady reading a book (reference 8).
In each calendar month, the full moon has traditionally been named with reference to farming activities or threats which occur at that time, for example, the “planting moon” in May, or the “frosty” or “beaver moon” in November (references 9 and 10). Sadly, in this modern age, the light of the full moon in November has led to this being the night during which most Christmas trees are stolen from farmers’ fields.
Although modern studies indicate otherwise (e.g. reference 11), common folklore suggests that more births occur on days with a full moon than during other lunar phases. The full moon has also been attributed to being a cause of madness (hence “lunatics”) as well as the object of fascination for the mythical werewolf. Conversely, the sighting of a new moon is thought by Muslims to bring them blessings from Allah (Pers. Comm.).
Further afield in the solar system are the planets. Their names (and that of Pluto) take after those of the ancient Roman gods. Interestingly, Jupiter (Roman king of the gods) has been suggested as an astronomical explanation for the “Star of Bethlehem” (reference 12) as witnessed and studied by the Magi, signifying the birth of Christ and hence Christianity (reference 13). It seems strange therefore, that Giotto di Bondone painted Halley’s comet in his Adoration of the Magi in 1304 (three years after a visit from the comet), especially given that comets were usually seen to be omens of doom and destruction.
Halley’s comet is amongst the most famous of comets, not only for being the first to have been recognised to be periodic, but also that its return period of 75 to 76 years means that it can be seen twice in a lifetime.
Early records show that its encounters with history include a sighting in 164 BC (recorded on a Babylonian stone tablet, reference 14), 66 AD (referenced in the Talmud, ibid.) and a sighting during the Battle of Hastings in 1066 (depicted in the Bayeux tapestry, reference 15). During its most recent visit in 1986, mankind took on a less passive spectatorship, and sent the Giotto probe to Halley’s comet – a practice repeated more dramatically with the Deep Impact mission to Comet Tempel 1 in July 2005 (reference 16).
Beyond the orbits of even the furthest comets are the stars. Providing navigation for sailors, tests of good eyesight for the Arabs (e.g. by splitting the Alcor and Mizar double star system with the naked eye), or signposts for mapping the sky, stars have been useful as well as a source of romance. They have also been the grounds of the misnaming of meteors as “shooting stars” which in themselves inspire their witnesses to make a wish.
In conclusion, astronomical phenomena have been recorded and regarded through history in many ways. They have served as omens and signs, as inspiration for music and art, and as a source of natural tools for placing us in our universe. Astronomy continues to permeate in our modern life in, for example, the lunar- and planetary- based names of the days of the week, constellation names in astrology and in the advancement of scientific understanding.
What will future generations make of astronomical phenomena? We have walked on the moon, and plans are afoot to step on Mars (reference 17). Probes and scientific instruments have been sent into space, either in orbit around a body (for example the recent STEREO mission, reference 18), or, as in the case of the Pioneer probes 10 and 11 and the Voyager probes 1 and 2, on trajectories reaching beyond our solar system carrying “greetings to the universe” as well as a host of sounds and scenes from Earth (reference 19). Space junk, CDs bearing names (reference 20), and even ashes of astronomers have found their way into space (reference 21).
Perhaps we should ask, what would the universe make of us?
References
1. (No date) [online] Available: http://www.exploratorium.edu/origins/hubble/prologue/naked.html [16/10/2006]
2. (No date) [online] Available: http://ephemeris.com/history/ [10/10/2006]
3. The Bible, Job 9.9, Job 38.31-32
4. (No date) [online] Available: http://www.exploratorium.edu/eclipse/dragon.html [10/10/2006]
5. (29/3/2006) [online] Available: http://www.bibalex.org/eclipse2006/HistoricalObservationsofSolarEclipses.htm [10/10/2006]
6. The Bible, Joel 2.31
7. (No date) [online] Available: http://islam.about.com/cs/prayer/a/eclipse.htm [11/10/2006]
8. (No date) [online] Available: http://www.netaxs.com/~mhmyers/mnillusion.html [10/10/2006]
9. (No date) [online] Available: http://www.skymaps.com [12/10/2006]
10. (No date) [online] Available: http://www.farmersalmanac.com/astronomy/fullmoonnames.html [16/10/2006]
11. Caton, D. B. (2001) Natality and the Moon Revisited: Do Birth Rates Depend on the Phase of the Moon? A paper presented at the January, 2002 American Astronomical Society Meeting. Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 33 (4) 2001, p.1371. Accessed from: (2002) [online] Available: http://www.dancaton.physics.appstate.edu/Birthrates/Birthrates.htm [12/10/2006]
12. (No date) [online] Available: http://www.bethlehemstar.net/dance/dance.htm [16/10/2006]
13. The Bible, Matthew 2.1-2
14. (15/10/2006) [online] Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Halley#Notable_appearances [17/10/2006]
15. (No date) [online] Available: http://www.flamsteed.info/fascomets.htm [17/10/2006]
16. (13/10/2006) [online] Available:http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/deepimpact/main/index.html [18/10/2005]
17. (29/5/2002) [online] Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2013863.stm [28/10/2006]
18. (26/10/2006) [online] Available: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stereo/main/index.html [28/10/2006]
19. (14/1/2003) [online] Available: http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/ [26/10/2006]
20. (8/9/2005) [online] Available: http://deepimpact.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/04-393d-impactor.html [28/10/2006]
21. (19/1/2006) [online] Available: http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/060119_pluto_nh_launch.html [28/10/2006]
22. (no date) [online] Available:
http://www.dstu.univ-montp2.fr/PERSO/chiavassa/thoughts.html [28/10/2006]
